Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics

Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics Publisher Pubmed

Farajollahi M¹ ; Saber Tahan S² ; Keshtkar A³ ; Peters OA⁴

Show Affiliations

1. Department of Endodontics, School of Dentistry, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
2. Department of Endodontics, School of Dentistry, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
3. Department of Disaster and Emergency Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
4. School of Dentistry, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Source: International Endodontic Journal Published:2025

Abstract

Confounding is a significant challenge in endodontic research, as it can blur the true effect and relationship between exposure and outcomes, potentially compromising the internal validity of research findings. Confounding variables can create apparent differences between study groups when no actual difference exists or fail to reveal true differences when they are present. Additionally, confounding can lead to either an underestimation or an overestimation of the effect of exposure on the outcome. This narrative review aims to (i) define confounder variables and explain how to identify them, (ii) elaborate methods for controlling confounders, and (iii) discuss how confounders can obscure any causal relationship. Confounding variables can be controlled through study design such as randomization, matching and restriction, or adjusted using statistical methods like stratification and multivariable models. However, inadequate control of confounding can result in residual confounding, which poses a significant threat to the interpretation of findings in endodontic research. © 2025 British Endodontic Society. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Style	Citing Format
MLA	Farajollahi M, et al.. "Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics." International Endodontic Journal, vol. 58, no. 3, 2025, pp. 411-419.
APA	Farajollahi M, Saber Tahan S, Keshtkar A, Peters OA (2025). Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics. International Endodontic Journal, 58(3), 411-419.
Chicago	Farajollahi M, Saber Tahan S, Keshtkar A, Peters OA. "Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics." International Endodontic Journal 58, no. 3 (2025): 411-419.
Harvard	Farajollahi M et al. (2025) 'Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics', International Endodontic Journal, 58(3), pp. 411-419.
Vancouver	Farajollahi M, Saber Tahan S, Keshtkar A, Peters OA. Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics. International Endodontic Journal. 2025;58(3):411-419.
BibTex	@article{ author = {Farajollahi M and Saber Tahan S and Keshtkar A and Peters OA}, title = {Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics}, journal = {International Endodontic Journal}, volume = {58}, number = {3}, pages = {411-419}, year = {2025} }
RIS	TY - JOUR AU - Farajollahi M AU - Saber Tahan S AU - Keshtkar A AU - Peters OA TI - Confounders: A Threat to the Interpretation of Research Findings in Endodontics JO - International Endodontic Journal VL - 58 IS - 3 SP - 411 EP - 419 PY - 2025 ER -

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