Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism

Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism Publisher Pubmed

Soleimani G ; Alekseichuk I ; Aurup C ; Bergmann TO ; Bestmann S ; Beynel L ; Evans C ; Frohlich F ; Ghobadiazbari P ; Hanlon CA ; Kasten F ; Konofagou EE ; Lueckel M ; Marquezruiz J Show All Authors

Soleimani G
Alekseichuk I
Aurup C
Bergmann TO
Bestmann S
Beynel L
Evans C
Frohlich F
Ghobadiazbari P
Hanlon CA
Kasten F
Konofagou EE
Lueckel M
Marquezruiz J
Mencarelli L
Mosayebisamani M
Neige C
Opitz A
Peterchev AV
Puonti O
Sackeim HA
Sanchezgarrido Campos G
Siebner HR
Thielscher A
Vlachos A
Voroslakos M
Nitsche MA
Lisanby SH
Bikson M
Ekhtiari H

Source: Brain Stimulation Published:2026

Abstract

The use of noninvasive transcranial brain stimulation methods, such as transcranial electrical stimulation (tES), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial focused ultrasound stimulation (tFUS), and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), has grown significantly over the past two decades. Evidence indicates that the dose-response relationship in brain stimulation is neither straightforward nor monotonic, with outcomes influenced by factors such as the brain state, anatomical variability, and neurophysiological mechanisms. Despite advancements in the field, there is still no consensus on standards for estimating and reporting delivered and received stimulation doses or defining dose-response relationships. This paper addresses these gaps by discussing four key areas: (1) factors influencing the delivered dose (stimulation parameters applied at the scalp), (2) quantification of the received dose (electric or acoustic fields delivered to brain tissue), (3) characterization of physiological, behavioral, and molecular responses to specific delivered/received doses, and (4) the dose-response relationship, which describes how variations in dose modulate brain function and behavior. Drawing on evidence from human and animal studies conducted in silico, in vitro, and in vivo, we outline challenges, propose solutions, and summarize current consensus standards. By promoting rigorous methodologies and transparent reporting, this paper aims to advance the reproducibility, safety, and efficacy of research on dose-response assessment in transcranial brain stimulation and its clinical applications. © 2026

Style	Citing Format
MLA	Soleimani G, et al.. "Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism." Brain Stimulation, vol. 19, no. 3, 2026, pp. -.
APA	Soleimani G, Alekseichuk I, Aurup C, Bergmann TO, Bestmann S, Beynel L, Evans C, Frohlich F, Ghobadiazbari P, Hanlon CA, Kasten F, Konofagou EE, Lueckel M, Marquezruiz J, Mencarelli L, Mosayebisamani M, Neige C, Opitz A, Peterchev AV, ... Ekhtiari H (2026). Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism. Brain Stimulation, 19(3), -.
Chicago	Soleimani G, Alekseichuk I, Aurup C, Bergmann TO, Bestmann S, Beynel L, Evans C, et al.. "Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism." Brain Stimulation 19, no. 3 (2026): -.
Harvard	Soleimani G et al. (2026) 'Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism', Brain Stimulation, 19(3), pp. -.
Vancouver	Soleimani G, Alekseichuk I, Aurup C, Bergmann TO, Bestmann S, Beynel L, et al.. Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism. Brain Stimulation. 2026;19(3):-.
BibTex	@article{ author = {Soleimani G and Alekseichuk I and Aurup C and Bergmann TO and Bestmann S and Beynel L and Evans C and Frohlich F and Ghobadiazbari P and Hanlon CA and Kasten F and Konofagou EE and Lueckel M and Marquezruiz J and Mencarelli L and Mosayebisamani M and Neige C and Opitz A and Peterchev AV and Puonti O and Sackeim HA and Sanchezgarrido Campos G and Siebner HR and Thielscher A and Vlachos A and Voroslakos M and Nitsche MA and Lisanby SH and Bikson M and Ekhtiari H}, title = {Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism}, journal = {Brain Stimulation}, volume = {19}, number = {3}, pages = {-}, year = {2026} }
RIS	TY - JOUR AU - Soleimani G AU - Alekseichuk I AU - Aurup C AU - Bergmann TO AU - Bestmann S AU - Beynel L AU - Evans C AU - Frohlich F AU - Ghobadiazbari P AU - Hanlon CA AU - Kasten F AU - Konofagou EE AU - Lueckel M AU - Marquezruiz J AU - Mencarelli L AU - Mosayebisamani M AU - Neige C AU - Opitz A AU - Peterchev AV AU - Puonti O AU - Sackeim HA AU - Sanchezgarrido Campos G AU - Siebner HR AU - Thielscher A AU - Vlachos A AU - Voroslakos M AU - Nitsche MA AU - Lisanby SH AU - Bikson M AU - Ekhtiari H TI - Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism JO - Brain Stimulation VL - 19 IS - 3 SP - EP - PY - 2026 ER -

Style

Citing Format

MLA

Soleimani G, et al.. "Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism." Brain Stimulation, vol. 19, no. 3, 2026, pp. -.

APA

Soleimani G, Alekseichuk I, Aurup C, Bergmann TO, Bestmann S, Beynel L, Evans C, Frohlich F, Ghobadiazbari P, Hanlon CA, Kasten F, Konofagou EE, Lueckel M, Marquezruiz J, Mencarelli L, Mosayebisamani M, Neige C, Opitz A, Peterchev AV, ... Ekhtiari H (2026). Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism. Brain Stimulation, 19(3), -.

Chicago

Soleimani G, Alekseichuk I, Aurup C, Bergmann TO, Bestmann S, Beynel L, Evans C, et al.. "Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism." Brain Stimulation 19, no. 3 (2026): -.

Harvard

Soleimani G et al. (2026) 'Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism', Brain Stimulation, 19(3), pp. -.

Vancouver

Soleimani G, Alekseichuk I, Aurup C, Bergmann TO, Bestmann S, Beynel L, et al.. Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism. Brain Stimulation. 2026;19(3):-.

BibTex

@article{ author = {Soleimani G and Alekseichuk I and Aurup C and Bergmann TO and Bestmann S and Beynel L and Evans C and Frohlich F and Ghobadiazbari P and Hanlon CA and Kasten F and Konofagou EE and Lueckel M and Marquezruiz J and Mencarelli L and Mosayebisamani M and Neige C and Opitz A and Peterchev AV and Puonti O and Sackeim HA and Sanchezgarrido Campos G and Siebner HR and Thielscher A and Vlachos A and Voroslakos M and Nitsche MA and Lisanby SH and Bikson M and Ekhtiari H}, title = {Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism}, journal = {Brain Stimulation}, volume = {19}, number = {3}, pages = {-}, year = {2026} }

RIS

TY - JOUR
AU - Soleimani G
AU - Alekseichuk I
AU - Aurup C
AU - Bergmann TO
AU - Bestmann S
AU - Beynel L
AU - Evans C
AU - Frohlich F
AU - Ghobadiazbari P
AU - Hanlon CA
AU - Kasten F
AU - Konofagou EE
AU - Lueckel M
AU - Marquezruiz J
AU - Mencarelli L
AU - Mosayebisamani M
AU - Neige C
AU - Opitz A
AU - Peterchev AV
AU - Puonti O
AU - Sackeim HA
AU - Sanchezgarrido Campos G
AU - Siebner HR
AU - Thielscher A
AU - Vlachos A
AU - Voroslakos M
AU - Nitsche MA
AU - Lisanby SH
AU - Bikson M
AU - Ekhtiari H
TI - Dose-Response Relationships in Transcranial Brain Stimulation: Physics, Physiology and Mechanism
JO - Brain Stimulation
VL - 19
IS - 3
SP -
EP -
PY - 2026
ER -

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