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The Association Between Smoking and Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Publisher



Yekta EM1 ; Khodamoradi F2 ; Beygi Z3 ; Shamsi FS4 ; Azizi H5 ; Parvardeh K6 ; Daria M7 ; Arshadi M3
Authors
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Authors Affiliations
  1. 1. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
  2. 2. Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
  3. 3. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
  4. 4. Center for Healthcare Data Modeling, Departments of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
  5. 5. Women’s Reproductive Health Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
  6. 6. Department of Medical Genetics, Tehran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
  7. 7. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran

Source: Journal of Public Health (Germany) Published:2025


Abstract

Aim: Some studies have shown that there is a relationship between smoking and metabolic syndrome (MetS), while other studies have not found an association. Considering the importance of this issue, the aim of this study was to review all the studies related to smoking and its relationship with MetS and to update the information. Subject and methods: PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched to identify studies on the association between smoking and MetS published from January 1, 2000, through August 13, 2023. The pooled odds ratio (OR) and relative risk (RR) and the 95% confidence intervals were used to measure the association between smoking and MetS by adopting a random-effects meta-analytic model. Quality appraisal was undertaken using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. Results: A total of 78 studies were included. Regarding the association between smoking and MetS, the pooled RR for current smoking among cohort studies was 1.51 [95% CI: 1.15, 1.99] and the pooled OR for current smoking among cross-sectional studies was 1.12 [95% CI: 1.07, 1.17]. For the relationship between smoking dose and MetS, the pooled OR for subgroups with 10 or more cigarettes/day was 1.57 [95% CI: 1.04, 2.38], but no association was found between subgroups with less than 10 cigarettes/day and MetS (1.17 [95% CI: 0.99, 1.38]). For the association between duration of smoking and MetS, the pooled OR for subgroups with 10 or more years of smoking was 1.17 [95% CI: 1, 1.39], while no association was found between subgroups with less than 10 years of smoking and MetS (0.96 [95% CI: 0.80, 1.16]). Conclusion: Our analysis shows a statistically significant relationship for current smoking among cohort and cross-sectional studies and between smoking dose and duration of smoking and MetS, where the likelihood of MetS increases with dose and duration. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2025.
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