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Global Burden of Lower Respiratory Infections and Aetiologies, 1990–2023: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2023 Publisher Pubmed



Sirota SB ; Bender RG ; Dominguez RMV ; Movo A ; Swetschinski LR ; Araki DT ; Han C ; Wool EE ; He J ; Carter A ; Aj Jabbar A ; Aalipour MA ; Aalruz H ; Abbasi Dolatabadi Z Show All Authors
Authors
  1. Sirota SB
  2. Bender RG
  3. Dominguez RMV
  4. Movo A
  5. Swetschinski LR
  6. Araki DT
  7. Han C
  8. Wool EE
  9. He J
  10. Carter A
  11. Aj Jabbar A
  12. Aalipour MA
  13. Aalruz H
  14. Abbasi Dolatabadi Z
  15. Abbastabar H
  16. Abd Elhafeez S
  17. Abdalla AN
  18. Abdalla MA
  19. ABDULLAH
  20. Abdallah EM
  21. Abdel Razeq NMI
  22. Abdelkader A
  23. Abdelsalam S
  24. Abdelwahab SI
  25. Abdoun M
  26. Abdous A
  27. Abdrabou MM
  28. Abdul Aziz JM
  29. Abdulah DM
  30. Abdullahi A
  31. Abdulrahman T
  32. Abdykerimova K
  33. Abebe Getahun H
  34. Abedi A
  35. Abejew AA
  36. Abidi SH
  37. Abil OZ
  38. Abiodun O
  39. Aboagye RG
  40. Abolhassani H
  41. Abonie US
  42. Aborode AT
  43. Abourashed NM
  44. Abtahi D
  45. Abu Z
  46. Abu Farha RK
  47. Abuadas FHA
  48. Abubakar AK
  49. Abubakar U
  50. Abuelala N
  51. Abugharbieh E
  52. Abuhelwa AY
  53. Abukhadijah HJ
  54. Abushanab D
  55. Acharya AB
  56. Acharya KP
  57. Acharya S
  58. Achore M
  59. Adal O
  60. Adams LC
  61. Addo IY
  62. Adebisi TA
  63. Adedia D
  64. Adedokun KA
  65. Adegoke NA
  66. Adekanmbi V
  67. Adeleke OT
  68. Adesina MA
  69. Adesola RO
  70. Adetunji CO
  71. Adetunji JB
  72. Adewumi IP
  73. Adhana MT
  74. Adhikary RK
  75. Adiba A
  76. Adiga U
  77. Adnan M
  78. Adnani QES
  79. Affinito G
  80. Afzal S
  81. Agafari GB
  82. Aggarwal N
  83. Agordoh PD
  84. Agrawal A
  85. Agyemangduah W
  86. Ahadi M
  87. Ahinkorah BO
  88. Ahmad AA
  89. Ahmad A
  90. Ahmad D
  91. Ahmad F
  92. Ahmad I
  93. Ahmad K
  94. Ahmad MM
  95. Ahmad R
  96. Ahmad S
  97. Ahmad T
  98. Ahmadi A
  99. Ahmadi M
  100. Ahmed A
  101. Ahmed A
  102. Ahmed GS
  103. Ahmed H
  104. Ahmed MS
  105. Ahmed MS
  106. Ahmed M
  107. Ahmed N
  108. Ahmed S
  109. Ahmed SA
  110. Ahmed Elimam I
  111. Akeju O
  112. Akhigbe RE
  113. Akhtar MN
  114. Akinosoglou K
  115. Akram H
  116. Al Awaidy S
  117. Al Hasan SM
  118. Al Zoubi MAM
  119. Alabbadi MA
  120. Alajlani MM
  121. Alaly Z
  122. Alam K
  123. Alam MK
  124. Alanezi FM
  125. Alanzi TM
  126. Alao JO
  127. Alarifi A
  128. Alashwal FY
  129. Alavi SMA
  130. Albashtawy M
  131. Albataineh MT
  132. Aldewik N
  133. Aldhaleei WA
  134. Aleidi SM
  135. Alemnew F
  136. Alfalki AM
  137. Algammal AM
  138. Alhumaidi A
  139. Alhumaydhi FA
  140. Ali HM
  141. Ali K
  142. Ali L
  143. Ali M
  144. Ali MD
  145. Ali MU
  146. Ali R
  147. Ali S
  148. Ali SS
  149. Aliede M
  150. Alif SM
  151. Alimohammadi M
  152. Alinejad Rokny H
  153. Alipour M
  154. Aljabi SW
  155. Aljofan M
  156. Aljunid SM
  157. Allemailem KS
  158. Almarwani S
  159. Almazan JU
  160. Almekhlafi HM
  161. Almobayed A
  162. Alnaeem MM
  163. Alnakshabandie WMY
  164. Alniss HY
  165. Alomari MA
  166. Alqahtani JS
  167. Alqudimat AR
  168. Alraddadi RM
  169. Alrimawi I
  170. Alrousan SM
  171. Alsabri MA
  172. Alshahrani NZ
  173. Alshetaiwi H
  174. Alsowaida YS
  175. Altaany Z
  176. Altaf A
  177. Altammemi AB
  178. Altawfiq JA
  179. Althobiani MA
  180. Altirkawi KA
  181. Alvisguzman N
  182. Alviszakzuk NJ
  183. Alwafi H
  184. Alwardat M
  185. Alworafi YM
  186. Aly H
  187. Alyahya MSI
  188. Alzoubi KH
  189. Alzubairi AS
  190. Alzubayer MA
  191. Alzyoud WA
  192. Amafah EJ
  193. Aman Mohammadi M
  194. Amhare AF
  195. Amini S
  196. Aminu K
  197. Aminu N
  198. Aminzare M
  199. Amiri S
  200. Amirtharaj AD
  201. Amugsi DA
  202. Amusa GA
  203. Anagnostakis F
  204. Anbesu EW
  205. Ancuceanu R
  206. Anderlini D
  207. Anil A
  208. Anjana DP
  209. Anjorin AAA
  210. Annadurai K
  211. Anuoluwa BS
  212. Anuoluwa IA
  213. Anvari S
  214. Anwer R
  215. Anyasodor AE
  216. Apostol GLC
  217. Appati W
  218. Arabloo J
  219. Arockiaraj J
  220. Arooj M
  221. Artamonov AA
  222. Arumuganainar D
  223. Arystan N
  224. Asdaq SMB
  225. Asebot MT
  226. Asefa SM
  227. Asemahagn MAA
  228. Ashraf SA
  229. Ashraf T
  230. Ashrafi M
  231. Aslam MS
  232. Asri Y
  233. Assefa DZ
  234. Assembekov B
  235. Atac O
  236. Athari SS
  237. Atre SR
  238. Atta JA
  239. Atwan ZA
  240. Augello M
  241. Aujayeb A
  242. Aurangzeb K
  243. Awan SJ
  244. Awoke AA
  245. Awosile BB
  246. Ayele HM
  247. Ayipo YO
  248. Ayyoubzadeh SM
  249. Azad AKM
  250. Azadi D
  251. Azami H
  252. Aziz SA
  253. Azizan A
  254. Babatope AE
  255. Babu GR
  256. Bacha IT
  257. Badar M
  258. Badran AA
  259. Baghizadeh F
  260. Baghlaf KK
  261. Bahreini R
  262. Baig AA
  263. Bakhshali MA
  264. Balakrishnan S
  265. Balooch Hasankhani M
  266. Barac A
  267. Barik M
  268. Barqawi HJ
  269. Bashir MI
  270. Bashir S
  271. Bashiri A
  272. Basri R
  273. Bassat Q
  274. Bastan MM
  275. Batiha AM
  276. Batra K
  277. Batra R
  278. Bayat M
  279. Bayleyegn ZW
  280. Bazaid AS
  281. Bedi N
  282. Beeraka NM
  283. Behzadi P
  284. Belay BM
  285. Belayneh AG
  286. Belayneh M
  287. Bele S
  288. Belgaumi UI
  289. Bell ML
  290. Bello MB
  291. Bello OO
  292. Bello UM
  293. Bente Kamal Tune SN
  294. Bera OPP
  295. Berihun AA
  296. Bermudez ANC
  297. Bettencourt PJG
  298. Bhargava A
  299. Bhaskar S
  300. Bhattacharjee P
  301. Bhattacharjee S
  302. Bhatti JS
  303. Bhatti MS
  304. Binsaleh NK
  305. Birru EM
  306. Biswas B
  307. Biswas MS
  308. Bitar AN
  309. Bitew M
  310. Bizzozeroperoni B
  311. Bodhare T
  312. Bogale EK
  313. Boloor A
  314. Bolourinejad P
  315. Borran M
  316. Bosoka SA
  317. Botero Carvajal A
  318. Bouaoud S
  319. Boxe C
  320. Briko NI
  321. Bui LP
  322. Busch F
  323. Bustanji Y
  324. Calina D
  325. Capodici A
  326. Carugno A
  327. Carvalho F
  328. Castanedaorjuela CA
  329. Cegolon L
  330. Cenderadewi M
  331. Cernigliaro A
  332. Cevik M
  333. Chadwick J
  334. Chakraborty C
  335. Chakraborty S
  336. Chattu VK
  337. Chau LD
  338. Chaudhary AA
  339. Chaudhuri S
  340. Chaurasia A
  341. Chen H
  342. Chen H
  343. Chen H
  344. Chen R
  345. Chen X
  346. Chew NW
  347. Ching PR
  348. Chisti MJ
  349. Cho WCS
  350. Chong B
  351. Chopra D
  352. Chopra S
  353. Chowdhury EK
  354. Christopher DJ
  355. Chu DT
  356. Chuang TW
  357. Chukwu IS
  358. Chung E
  359. Chung S
  360. Chutiyami M
  361. Conti S
  362. Corlateanu A
  363. Cosma C
  364. Cruzmartins N
  365. Dabbagh A
  366. Dadras O
  367. Dagnew EM
  368. Dai X
  369. Dang AK
  370. Daniel RA
  371. Danpanichkul P
  372. Danso SE
  373. Darcho SD
  374. Darouei B
  375. Darwesh AM
  376. Das JK
  377. Das S
  378. Davletov D
  379. De Souza WM
  380. Deekonda S
  381. Del Riccio M
  382. Delgadoenciso I
  383. Demeke D
  384. Derese TN
  385. Dervisevic E
  386. Dervisevic M
  387. Desalegn G
  388. Devanbu VGC
  389. Devegowda D
  390. Dewan SMR
  391. Dhali A
  392. Dhane AS
  393. Dhimal ML
  394. Dhimal M
  395. Dhungel B
  396. Di Bella S
  397. Di Paolo A
  398. Di Pumpo M
  399. Ding G
  400. Do HT
  401. Do MN
  402. Do THP
  403. Dokova KG
  404. Dolatkhah N
  405. Dorostkar F
  406. Doshi OP
  407. Dourado PMM
  408. Dowou RK
  409. Duraisamy S
  410. Durojaiye OC
  411. Dutta S
  412. Ebohon O
  413. Ebrahimi MH
  414. Eddra A
  415. Edeh C
  416. Edinur HA
  417. Efendi F
  418. Eghbali F
  419. Eini E
  420. Ekholuenetale M
  421. Eko SM
  422. El Arab RA
  423. El Sayed I
  424. El Sayed Zaki M
  425. Eldaboush A
  426. Eldeyarbi M
  427. Elhadi M
  428. Elhadi YAM
  429. Elhoumed M
  430. Elmeligy OAA
  431. Elmonem MA
  432. Elnaem MH
  433. Elshaer M
  434. Eltahawy AS
  435. Eshetie S
  436. Eshrati B
  437. Eshun G
  438. Eslami M
  439. Fadavian H
  440. Fagbamigbe AF
  441. Fakhradiyev IR
  442. Fally M
  443. Fan Q
  444. Farahmand M
  445. Farasani A
  446. Fareed M
  447. Farhana A
  448. Farooq SMY
  449. Fasina FO
  450. Fasina MM
  451. Fatehizadeh A
  452. Fatima Z
  453. Fekadu G
  454. Ferrara P
  455. Ferreira N
  456. Fetensa G
  457. Feyisa BR
  458. Firew BS
  459. Fischer F
  460. Fonzo M
  461. Fortuna Rodrigues C
  462. Fowotade OD
  463. Gaal PA
  464. Gad AG
  465. Gaihre S
  466. Gajdacs M
  467. Ganesh B
  468. Gangachannaiah S
  469. Gao X
  470. Garcia FJB
  471. Garciaazorin D
  472. Garlasco J
  473. Gatzioufas Z
  474. Gautam RK
  475. Gebremeskel TG
  476. Geremew GW
  477. Gessner BD
  478. Getahun GK
  479. Getaneh G
  480. Gete KY
  481. Ghadiri K
  482. Ghaffari K
  483. Ghamkhar A
  484. Gharaibeh L
  485. Ghasemi M
  486. Ghatee MA
  487. Ghazy RM
  488. Ghimire S
  489. Ghoba S
  490. Gil AU
  491. Gilani SA
  492. Giri BR
  493. Girombelli A
  494. Gobolos L
  495. Gohari K
  496. Goleij P
  497. Golmohammadi M
  498. Gong W
  499. Goshu YA
  500. Guadie HA
  501. Guan SY
  502. Guarducci G
  503. Gubari MIM
  504. Gulma KA
  505. Gunawardane DA
  506. Gupta AK
  507. Gupta G
  508. Gupta L
  509. Gupta S
  510. Gupta S
  511. Gupta VB
  512. Gupta VK
  513. Gutierrezmurillo RS
  514. Guzmanesquivel J
  515. Habteyohannes AD
  516. Hadei M
  517. Hadi NR
  518. Hadian Z
  519. Hafiz A
  520. Hai Nam N
  521. Haile A
  522. Hailu KT
  523. Haller S
  524. Hamad IM
  525. Hamed M
  526. Hammoud A
  527. Han Yekdes D
  528. Hanif A
  529. Hanifi N
  530. Hanna F
  531. Haque A
  532. Harapan H
  533. Harboe ZB
  534. Harsini S
  535. Has EMM
  536. Hasan I
  537. Hasan MK
  538. Hasani H
  539. Haselbeck AH
  540. Hashem Zadeh A
  541. Hashempur MH
  542. Hasnain A
  543. Hasnain MS
  544. Hassan A
  545. Hassan IN
  546. Hassan I
  547. Hassan MI
  548. Hassan MA
  549. Hassan N
  550. Hassani S
  551. Hathagoda LW
  552. Hayat K
  553. He Q
  554. Heibati B
  555. Heidari M
  556. Helmy YA
  557. Hendy A
  558. Herteliu C
  559. Hezam K
  560. Hiraike Y
  561. Holla R
  562. Holler JGG
  563. Hossain A
  564. Hossain MS
  565. Hosseinzadeh M
  566. Hostiuc M
  567. Hostiuc S
  568. Huang J
  569. Huang Y
  570. Hushmandi K
  571. Hussain J
  572. Hussein AM
  573. Hussein D
  574. Hussein MA
  575. Hussein NR
  576. Husseiny MI
  577. Ibitoye SE
  578. Ibragimova L
  579. Ibrahim AA
  580. Ibrahim KS
  581. Ibrayeva A
  582. Ikiroma A
  583. Ikram A
  584. Ikuta KS
  585. Ilesanmi OS
  586. Ilic IM
  587. Ilic MD
  588. Ilyas MH
  589. Ilyasu S
  590. Imam MT
  591. Immurana M
  592. Irham LM
  593. Isa MA
  594. Ishaqui AA
  595. Islam MR
  596. Islam MS
  597. Islam SMS
  598. Ismael SS
  599. Ismail F
  600. Ismail NE
  601. Ismoldayev Y
  602. Iwagami M
  603. Iwujaja CJ
  604. Iyasu AN
  605. Jaafari J
  606. Jadidi A
  607. Jahrami H
  608. Jain A
  609. Jakovljevic M
  610. Jalloh M
  611. Jamal A
  612. Jamal QMS
  613. Jamaluddin J
  614. James J
  615. Jamora RDG
  616. Jarrahi E
  617. Javadi Mamaghani A
  618. Javidnia J
  619. Jawaid T
  620. Jayaram S
  621. Jayasinghe RD
  622. Jayasinghe YA
  623. Jeon JJ
  624. Jeong S
  625. Jiang M
  626. Jin W
  627. Johnston I
  628. Jomehzadeh N
  629. Jonas JB
  630. Jose J
  631. Joseph AP
  632. Joseph N
  633. Joshi K
  634. Joshua CE
  635. K V
  636. Kaambwa B
  637. Kadashetti V
  638. Kadir DHH
  639. Kadir MF
  640. Kaibullayeva J
  641. Kalavani K
  642. Kalra S
  643. Kamal MA
  644. Kamorudeen RT
  645. Kamyshnyi O
  646. Kang J
  647. Kanmodi KK
  648. Kannan S S
  649. Kant S
  650. Kar D
  651. Kar D
  652. Karajizadeh M
  653. Karakasis P
  654. Karami J
  655. Karch A
  656. Karimi Behnagh A
  657. Karkhah S
  658. Karobari MI
  659. Karpinski TMM
  660. Kashoo FZ
  661. Kashyap MK
  662. Kassahun NBB
  663. Kausar MA
  664. Kazemi F
  665. Kebede AZ
  666. Kebede HK
  667. Kebede YT
  668. Keivanlou MH
  669. Kempen JH
  670. Keshwani A
  671. Khader YS
  672. Khajuria H
  673. Khalifa HO
  674. Khalil AA
  675. Khalili P
  676. Khamesipour F
  677. Khan A
  678. Khan FUU
  679. Khan IW
  680. Khan IH
  681. Khan M
  682. Khan MI
  683. Khan MU
  684. Khan S
  685. Khan YS
  686. Khan Z
  687. Khasbage SU
  688. Khatatbeh H
  689. Khatatbeh MM
  690. Kheirallah KA
  691. Khezeli M
  692. Khoshvaght P
  693. Khoshvaght S
  694. Khosravi F
  695. Khosravi S
  696. Kim G
  697. Kim HJ
  698. Kim MS
  699. Kimokoti RW
  700. Kini B S
  701. Kisa A
  702. Kisa S
  703. Kishore L
  704. Klu D
  705. Km S
  706. Kochhar S
  707. Koh SWC
  708. Kolahi AA
  709. Kompani F
  710. Korma WE
  711. Kormoker T
  712. Korshunov VA
  713. Korzh O
  714. Kostev K
  715. Koul PA
  716. Kretchy JP
  717. Krishan K
  718. Kuddus M
  719. Kuehni CE
  720. Kuitunen I
  721. Kulimbet M
  722. Kulshreshtha S
  723. Kumah E
  724. Kumar D
  725. Kumar J
  726. Kumar K
  727. Kumar N
  728. Kumar R
  729. Kumar T
  730. Kumar V
  731. Kumaran S
  732. Kundu S
  733. Kunjavara J
  734. Kunutsor SK
  735. Kurmi OP
  736. Kurniasari MD
  737. Kushawaha PK
  738. Kusuma D
  739. Kuttybayev A
  740. Kuwornu JP
  741. Kyto V
  742. La Vecchia A
  743. Lahariya C
  744. Lai H
  745. Lajunen T
  746. Lakanova B
  747. Lal DK
  748. Lanfranchi F
  749. Lau CL
  750. Lawanson T
  751. Le DH
  752. Le TTT
  753. Ledda C
  754. Lee SV
  755. Lee SW
  756. Lee WC
  757. Leivaditis V
  758. Lemma DA
  759. Lewis MSS
  760. Li C
  761. Li X
  762. Lin J
  763. Liu G
  764. Liu H
  765. Liu J
  766. Liu X
  767. Liu Y
  768. Liu Z
  769. Llanaj E
  770. Lodhi MS
  771. Loftus MJ
  772. Lu K
  773. Lubinda J
  774. Lucchetti G
  775. Luo P
  776. Lutambi AM
  777. Lv H
  778. Lytras MD
  779. Lytvyak E
  780. M Amin HI
  781. Ma KSK
  782. Ma ZF
  783. Mabrok M
  784. Madadi F
  785. Madadizadeh F
  786. Maffia P
  787. Maghool F
  788. Magwe EA
  789. Mahamed SA
  790. Mahmood NH
  791. Mahmoudi S
  792. Malik AA
  793. Malik S
  794. Malik T
  795. Malinga LA
  796. Malkamu B
  797. Manilal A
  798. Mansoor F
  799. Manzoor S
  800. Maqbool T
  801. Marateb HR
  802. Margetis K
  803. Markshultstrom M
  804. Martinezguerra BA
  805. Martinsmelo FR
  806. Martorell M
  807. Marzo RR
  808. Marzouk S
  809. Matei CN
  810. Mathangasinghe Y
  811. Mathur N
  812. Matozinhos FP
  813. Mattiello R
  814. Maude RJ
  815. Mavrovounis G
  816. Mcphail SM
  817. Mediratta RP
  818. Mehari M
  819. Mehboob R
  820. Mehrotra R
  821. Mekonnen LB
  822. Meles HN
  823. Melese A
  824. Memary E
  825. Memish ZA
  826. Mendoza W
  827. Menezes GA
  828. Mengistie EA
  829. Menon TP
  830. Meo SA
  831. Mercogliano M
  832. Meretoja TJ
  833. Merza MA
  834. Mestrovic T
  835. Mettananda CDK
  836. Mettananda S
  837. Metwally MMM
  838. Mewoabi SDD
  839. Miazgowski B
  840. Michalek IM
  841. Minervini G
  842. Ming WK
  843. Mini GK
  844. Mirrakhimov EM
  845. Mirshahvalad SA
  846. Mishra A
  847. Mishra S
  848. Mishra V
  849. Mohamed MG
  850. Mohamed NS
  851. Mohamed Ahmed KAH
  852. Mohammad T
  853. Mohammadi A
  854. Mohammadi MK
  855. Mohammadi MR
  856. Mohammadi S
  857. Mohammadi S
  858. Mohammed O
  859. Mohammed S
  860. Mohammed Y
  861. Mohan S
  862. Mohanta YK
  863. Mohseni M
  864. Mohsenzadeh A
  865. Mokdad AH
  866. Mollaei A
  867. Monasta L
  868. Moni MA
  869. Montalti M
  870. Moraga P
  871. Morais DF
  872. Morawska L
  873. Morovvati M
  874. Morsy MM
  875. Mosquera FEC
  876. Mosser JF
  877. Motappa R
  878. Mousavi SA
  879. Mousavi Khaneghah A
  880. Mousavi Kiasary F
  881. Mousavi Kiasary SMS
  882. Mousnad MAA
  883. Mowafy HL
  884. Mozahheb Yousefi K
  885. Mubarik S
  886. Muhammad JS
  887. Mukherjee S
  888. Mukhopadhyay A
  889. Mulatu S
  890. Mulita F
  891. Muniyandi M
  892. Munjal K
  893. Murillozamora E
  894. Musa S
  895. Musaigwa F
  896. Muthu S
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Source: The Lancet Infectious Diseases Published:2026


Abstract

Background: Lower respiratory infections (LRIs) remain the world's leading infectious cause of death. This analysis from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2023 provides global, regional, and national estimates of LRI incidence, mortality, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), with attribution to 26 pathogens, including 11 newly modelled pathogens, across 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2023. With new data and revised modelling techniques, these estimates serve as an update and expansion to GBD 2021. Through these estimates, we also aimed to assess progress towards the 2025 Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Pneumonia and Diarrhoea (GAPPD) target for pneumonia mortality in children younger than 5 years. Methods: Mortality from LRIs, defined as physician-diagnosed pneumonia or bronchiolitis, was estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model with data from vital registration, verbal autopsy, surveillance, and minimally invasive tissue sampling. The Bayesian meta-regression tool DisMod-MR 2.1 was used to model overall morbidity due to LRIs. DALYs were calculated as the sum of years of life lost (YLLs) and years lived with disability (YLDs) for all locations, years, age groups, and sexes. We modelled pathogen-specific case-fatality ratios (CFRs) for each age group and location using splined binomial regression to create internally consistent estimates of incidence and mortality proportions attributable to viral, fungal, parasitic, and bacterial pathogens. Progress was assessed towards the GAPPD target of less than three deaths from pneumonia per 1000 livebirths, which is roughly equivalent to a mortality rate of less than 60 deaths per 100 000 children younger than 5 years. Findings: In 2023, LRIs were responsible for 2·50 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 2·24–2·81) deaths and 98·7 million (87·7–112) DALYs, with children younger than 5 years and adults aged 70 years and older carrying the highest burden. LRI mortality in children younger than 5 years fell by 33·4% (10·4–47·4) since 2010, with a global mortality rate of 94·8 (75·6–116·4) per 100 000 person-years in 2023. Among adults aged 70 years and older, the burden remained substantial with only marginal declines since 2010. A mortality rate of less than 60 deaths per 100 000 for children younger than 5 years was met by 129 of the 204 modelled countries in 2023. At a super-regional level, sub-Saharan Africa had an aggregate mortality rate in children younger than 5 years (hereafter referred to as under-5 mortality rate) furthest from the GAPPD target. Streptococcus pneumoniae continued to account for the largest number of LRI deaths globally (634 000 [95% UI 565 000–721 000] deaths or 25·3% [24·5–26·1] of all LRI deaths), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (271 000 [243 000–298 000] deaths or 10·9% [10·3–11·3]), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (228 000 [204 000–261 000] deaths or 9·1% [8·8–9·5]). Among pathogens newly modelled in this study, non-tuberculous mycobacteria (responsible for 177 000 [95% UI 155 000–201 000] deaths) and Aspergillus spp (responsible for 67 800 [59 900–75 900] deaths) emerged as important contributors. Altogether, the 11 newly modelled pathogens accounted for approximately 22% of LRI deaths. Interpretation: This comprehensive analysis underscores both the gains achieved through vaccination and the challenges that remain in controlling the LRI burden globally. Furthermore, it demonstrates persistent disparities in disease burden, with the highest mortality rates concentrated in countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Globally, as well as in these high-burden locations, the under-5 LRI mortality rate remains well above the GAPPD target. Progress towards this target requires equitable access to vaccines and preventive therapies—including newer interventions such as respiratory syncytial virus monoclonal antibodies—and health systems capable of early diagnosis and treatment. Expanding surveillance of emerging pathogens, strengthening adult immunisation programmes, and combating vaccine hesitancy are also crucial. As the global population ages, the dual challenge of sustaining gains in child survival while addressing the rising vulnerability in older adults will shape future pneumonia control strategies. Funding: Gates Foundation. © 2026 Elsevier Ltd
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