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Global Burden and Strength of Evidence for 88 Risk Factors in 204 Countries and 811 Subnational Locations, 1990–2021: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 Publisher Pubmed

Summary: What risks harm global health? A study found air pollution and high blood pressure are top causes of disease, urging action on lifestyle and environment. #PublicHealth #DiseasePrevention

Brauer M1, 13 ; Roth GA1, 2, 3 ; Aravkin AY1, 3, 4 ; Zheng P1, 3 ; Abate KH16 ; Abate YH22 ; Abbafati C23 ; Abbasgholizadeh R25 ; Abbasi MA27 ; Abbasian M37, 53 ; Abbasifard M79, 80 ; Abbasikangevari M82 ; Abd Elhafeez S113 ; Abdelsalam S117 Show All Authors
Authors
  1. Brauer M1, 13
  2. Roth GA1, 2, 3
  3. Aravkin AY1, 3, 4
  4. Zheng P1, 3
  5. Abate KH16
  6. Abate YH22
  7. Abbafati C23
  8. Abbasgholizadeh R25
  9. Abbasi MA27
  10. Abbasian M37, 53
  11. Abbasifard M79, 80
  12. Abbasikangevari M82
  13. Abd Elhafeez S113
  14. Abdelsalam S117
  15. Abdi P118
  16. Abdollahi M83, 84
  17. Abdoun M119
  18. Abdulah DM120
  19. Abdullahi A121, 123
  20. Abebe M124
  21. Abedi A127, 128, 131
  22. Abedi A127, 128, 131
  23. Abegaz TM134, 136
  24. Zuniga RAA137, 138
  25. Abiodun O139
  26. Abiso TL140
  27. Aboagye RG141
  28. Abolhassani H85, 147
  29. Abouzid M153
  30. Aboye GB154, 155
  31. Abreu LG156
  32. Abualruz H164
  33. Abubakar B165, 169
  34. Abugharbieh E170
  35. Abukhadijah HJJ184
  36. Aburuz S187, 192
  37. Abuzaid A193, 195
  38. Adane MM196
  39. Addo IY202, 215
  40. Addolorato G216, 218
  41. Adedoyin RA219
  42. Adekanmbi V221
  43. Aden B224, 225
  44. Adetunji JB226
  45. Adeyeoluwa TE227, 232
  46. Adha R240
  47. Adibi A14
  48. Adnani QES241
  49. Adzigbli LA142
  50. Afolabi AA233
  51. Afolabi RF234
  52. Afshin A1, 3
  53. Afyouni S243
  54. Afzal MS252
  55. Afzal S253, 254
  56. Agampodi SB255, 257
  57. Agbozo F141, 258
  58. Aghamiri S54
  59. Agodi A261
  60. Agrawal A265, 266
  61. Agyemangduah W267
  62. Ahinkorah BO269
  63. Ahmad A272
  64. Ahmad D275, 278
  65. Ahmad F171
  66. Ahmad N1
  67. Ahmad S279, 281
  68. Ahmad T282
  69. Ahmed A283, 284, 285, 286, 290, 292
  70. Ahmed A283, 284, 285, 286, 290, 292
  71. Ahmed A283, 284, 285, 286, 290, 292
  72. Ahmed LA188
  73. Ahmed MB17, 293
  74. Ahmed S295, 296
  75. Ajami M55, 300
  76. Akalu GT302, 303
  77. Akara EM305
  78. Akbarialiabad H203
  79. Akhlaghi S306
  80. Akinosoglou K311, 312
  81. Akinyemiju T313, 314
  82. Akkaif MA316
  83. Akkala S317
  84. Akombiinyang B204
  85. Al Awaidy S319, 320
  86. Al Hasan SM321
  87. Alahdab F322, 323
  88. Alahdal TMA324
  89. Alalalmeh SO325
  90. Alalwan TA327
  91. Alaly Z329, 333
  92. Alam K334
  93. Alam N335, 336
  94. Alanezi FM339
  95. Alanzi TM337
  96. Albakri A340
  97. Albataineh MT341
  98. Aldhaleei WA344
  99. Aldridge RW345
  100. Alemayohu MA350, 352
  101. Alemu YM197, 276
  102. Alfatly B353
  103. Algheethi AAS357, 359
  104. Alhabbal K223
  105. Alhabib KF360
  106. Alhassan RK143
  107. Ali A364, 365
  108. Ali A364, 365
  109. Ali BA366, 367
  110. Ali I244
  111. Ali L368
  112. Ali MU123, 369
  113. Ali R371
  114. Ali SSS373
  115. Ali W374
  116. Alicandro G375, 377
  117. Alif SM378
  118. Aljunid SM382, 385
  119. Alla F386
  120. Almarwani S387, 388
  121. Almekhlafi HM389, 392
  122. Almustanyir S194, 393
  123. Alomari MA394, 398
  124. Alonso J403, 404
  125. Alqahtani JS405
  126. Alqutaibi AY406, 407
  127. Alraddadi RM408
  128. Alrawashdeh A399
  129. Alrifai RH188
  130. Alrousan SM413
  131. Alsabah SK383, 414
  132. Alshahrani NZ415
  133. Altaany Z342
  134. Altaf A416
  135. Altawfiq JA424, 425
  136. Altirkawi KA183
  137. Aluh DO426, 427
  138. Alvisguzman N428, 430
  139. Alviszakzuk NJ429, 432
  140. Alwafi H434
  141. Alwardat MS400
  142. Alworafi YM437, 438
  143. Aly H439
  144. Aly S38, 443
  145. Alzoubi KH172, 401
  146. Alzyoud W444
  147. Amaechi UA445
  148. Mohammadi MA301
  149. Amani R446, 447
  150. Amiri S452
  151. Amirzadeiranaq MH86
  152. Ammirati E454
  153. Amu H144
  154. Amugsi DA455
  155. Amusa GA456, 457
  156. Ancuceanu R458
  157. Anderlini D465, 472
  158. Anderson JA1
  159. Andrade PP473, 474
  160. Andrei CL459
  161. Andrei T475
  162. Anenberg SC477
  163. Angappan D478
  164. Angus C479
  165. Anil A480, 489
  166. Anil S490
  167. Anjum A491
  168. Anoushiravani A87
  169. Antonazzo IC494
  170. Antony CM1
  171. Antriyandarti E496
  172. Anuoluwa BS228
  173. Anvari D497, 504
  174. Anvari S505
  175. Anwar S372, 510, 511
  176. Anwer R513
  177. Anyabolo EE514, 516
  178. Anyasodor AE517
  179. Apostol GLC518, 520
  180. Arabloo J521
  181. Bahri RA88
  182. Arafat M536
  183. Areda D538, 539
  184. Aregawi BB222, 540
  185. Aremu A543
  186. Armocida B546
  187. Arndt MB1, 5
  188. Arnlov J148, 547
  189. Arooj M417
  190. Artamonov AA548
  191. Artanti KD549
  192. Aruleba IT553
  193. Arumugam A173, 554
  194. Asbeutah AM379, 384
  195. Asgary S56, 556
  196. Asgedom AA351
  197. Ashbaugh C1
  198. Ashemo MY18, 558
  199. Ashraf T418
  200. Askarinejad A522
  201. Assmus M1
  202. Astellburt T559
  203. Athar M435, 436
  204. Athari SS132
  205. Atorkey P358, 570
  206. Atreya A571
  207. Aujayeb A572
  208. Ausloos M475, 573
  209. Avilaburgos L575
  210. Awoke AA196
  211. Quintanilla BPA578, 581
  212. Ayatollahi H521, 523
  213. Portugal CA582
  214. Ayusomateos JL583, 586
  215. Azadnajafabad S82
  216. Azevedo RMS588
  217. Azhar GS1, 591
  218. Azizi H28, 89
  219. Azzam AY592, 593
  220. Backhaus IL595
  221. Badar M597
  222. Badiye AD598
  223. Bagga A599
  224. Baghdadi S604
  225. Bagheri N277, 605
  226. Bagherieh S606
  227. Taghanaki PB615
  228. Bai R623
  229. Baig AA625
  230. Baker JL626
  231. Bakkannavar SM627
  232. Balasubramanian M560, 636
  233. Baltatu OC642
  234. Bam K644
  235. Bandyopadhyay S648, 654
  236. Banik B657, 658
  237. Banik PC659
  238. Bankethomas A660, 663
  239. Bansal H598
  240. Barchitta M261
  241. Bardhan M664
  242. Bardideh E616
  243. Barkercollo SL665
  244. Barnighausen TW39, 324
  245. Baroneadesi F666
  246. Barqawi HJ170
  247. Barrero LH667
  248. Barrow A668, 673
  249. Barteit S324
  250. Basharat Z674
  251. Basiru A544
  252. Basso JD675, 676
  253. Bastan MM82, 524
  254. Basu S40, 679
  255. Batchu S685
  256. Batra K686
  257. Batra R687, 689
  258. Baune BT690, 692
  259. Bayati M448
  260. Bayileyegn NS19
  261. Beaney T680
  262. Behnoush AH695
  263. Beiranvand M669
  264. Bejot Y696, 697
  265. Bekele A698
  266. Belgaumi UI703
  267. Bell AW41, 706
  268. Bell ML707
  269. Bello MB166, 712
  270. Bello OO229
  271. Belo L714, 715
  272. Beloukas A721, 722
  273. Bendak S724
  274. Bennett DA649
  275. Bennitt FB1
  276. Bensenor IM725
  277. Benzian H730
  278. Beran A733
  279. Berezvai Z734, 735
  280. Bernabe E736
  281. Bernstein RS741, 744
  282. Bettencourt PJG745
  283. Bhagavathula AS746
  284. Bhala N747, 748
  285. Bhandari D645, 750
  286. Bhardwaj N481
  287. Bhardwaj P482, 483
  288. Bhaskar S754, 755
  289. Bhat AN756
  290. Bhat V763
  291. Bhatti GK764
  292. Bhatti JS766
  293. Bhatti MS768
  294. Bhatti R769
  295. Bhuiyan MA770
  296. Bhutta ZA771, 774
  297. Bikbov B777
  298. Bishai JD1
  299. Bisignano C1
  300. Biswas A778
  301. Biswas B780
  302. Biswas RK561, 781
  303. Bjorge T782, 784
  304. Boachie MK145, 785
  305. Boakye H786
  306. Bockarie MJ789, 790
  307. Bodolica V794
  308. Bodunrin AO297
  309. Bogale EK198
  310. Bolla SR795
  311. Boloor A757
  312. Hashemi MB57
  313. Boppana SH245
  314. Basara BB797
  315. Borhany H58
  316. Carvajal AB798
  317. Bouaoud S799, 801
  318. Boufous S205
  319. Bourne R802
  320. Boxe C803
  321. Braithwaite D668, 804
  322. Brant LC157
  323. Brar A772
  324. Breitborde NJK805, 806
  325. Breitner S808, 809
  326. Brenner H810
  327. Briko AN811
  328. Britton G813, 814
  329. Brown CS681, 815
  330. Browne AJ650
  331. Brunoni AR725, 726
  332. Bryazka D1
  333. Bulamu NB637
  334. Bulto LN638
  335. Buonsenso D217, 816
  336. Burkart K1
  337. Burns RA277
  338. Busse R473
  339. Bustanji Y174, 818
  340. Butt NS409
  341. Butt ZA819, 820
  342. Dos Santos FLC42
  343. Cagney J1
  344. Cahuanahurtado L821
  345. Calina D822
  346. Camera LA823, 824
  347. Campos LA643
  348. Camposnonato IR576
  349. Cao C825
  350. Cao F826
  351. Cao Y827
  352. Capodici A828, 830
  353. Cardenas R831
  354. Carr S43
  355. Carreras G832
  356. Carrero JJ149
  357. Carugno A833
  358. Carvalho F715
  359. Carvalho M716, 834
  360. Castaldellimaia JM726
  361. Castanedaorjuela CA433, 835
  362. Castelpietra G837, 838
  363. Catalalopez F839, 840
  364. Catapano AL841, 845
  365. Cattaruzza MS24
  366. Caye A846
  367. Cederroth CR150, 849
  368. Cegolon L850, 851
  369. Cenderadewi M852, 854
  370. Cercy KM1
  371. Cerin E855, 857
  372. Chadwick J861
  373. Chakraborty C862, 863
  374. Chakraborty PA13
  375. Chakraborty S864
  376. Chan JSK865
  377. Chan RNC866
  378. Chandan JS748
  379. Chandika RM867
  380. Chaturvedi P872
  381. Chen AT873, 874
  382. Chen CS1
  383. Chen H875
  384. Chen MX877, 878
  385. Chen M877, 878
  386. Chen S1
  387. Cheng CY880, 881
  388. Cheng ETW883
  389. Cherbuin N277
  390. Chi G44
  391. Chichagi F91
  392. Chimedochir O886
  393. Chimoriya R562, 887
  394. Ching PR890
  395. Chirinoscaceres JL891
  396. Chitheer A892
  397. Cho WCS1, 893
  398. Chong B894
  399. Chopra H900
  400. Chowdhury R903, 904
  401. Christopher DJ906
  402. Chu DT908
  403. Chukwu IS909
  404. Chung E466, 910
  405. Chung SC346, 911
  406. Chutiyami M270
  407. Cioffi I842
  408. Cogen RM1
  409. Cohen AJ1, 912
  410. Columbus A246
  411. Conde J913
  412. Corlateanu A914
  413. Cortese S655, 731
  414. Cortesi PA495
  415. Costa VM715
  416. Costanzo S915
  417. Criqui MH916
  418. Cruz JA1
  419. Cruzmartins N589, 717
  420. Culbreth GT1
  421. Da Silva AG158
  422. Dadras O92
  423. Dai X3
  424. Dai Z206, 563
  425. Daikwo PU228
  426. Dalli LL646
  427. Damiani G843, 917
  428. Damico E261
  429. Danna L682
  430. Darwesh AM923
  431. Das JK775
  432. Das S926
  433. Dash NR170
  434. Dashti M29
  435. Davilacervantes CA927
  436. Weaver ND1
  437. Davitoiu DV460, 928
  438. De La Hoz FP836
  439. De La Torreluque A929
  440. De Leo D930
  441. Debopadhaya S931
  442. Degenhardt L1, 207
  443. Bo CD376
  444. Delgadoenciso I932, 933
  445. Delgadosaborit JM934
  446. Demoze CK125
  447. Denovagutierrez E576
  448. Dervenis N935, 936
  449. Dervisevic E939
  450. Desai HD940
  451. Desai R941
  452. Devanbu VGC942
  453. Dewan SMR770, 943
  454. Dhali A779
  455. Dhama K944
  456. Dhane AS945
  457. Dhimal ML947, 948
  458. Dhimal M948, 949
  459. Dhingra S950
  460. Dhulipala VR951
  461. Dhungana RR953
  462. Da Silva DD590, 715
  463. Diaz D954
  464. Diaz LA956
  465. Diaz MJ670
  466. Dima A476
  467. Ding DD668
  468. Dinu M957
  469. Djalalinia S557
  470. Do TC958
  471. Do THP961
  472. Do Prado CB962
  473. Dodangeh M963
  474. Dohare S868
  475. Dokova KG964
  476. Dong W965
  477. Dongarwar D318
  478. Doria M850, 966
  479. Dorostkar F525
  480. Dorsey ER967
  481. Doshi R968
  482. Doshmangir L30
  483. Dowou RK142
  484. Driscoll TR564
  485. Dsouza AC969
  486. Dsouza HL758, 970
  487. Dumith SC971
  488. Duncan BB847
  489. Duraes AR972, 974
  490. Duraisamy S975
  491. Dushpanova A976
  492. Dzianach PA977
  493. Dziedzic AM980
  494. Ebrahimi A981
  495. Echieh CP986, 987
  496. Eddra A988
  497. Edinur HA989
  498. Edvardsson D555, 579
  499. Edvardsson K990
  500. Efendi F550
  501. Eftekharimehrabad A991, 992
  502. Eini E307
  503. Ekholuenetale M993
  504. Ekundayo TC230
  505. El Arab RA994
  506. El Sayed Zaki M995
  507. Eldahiyat F537, 997
  508. Elemam NM175
  509. Elgar FJ259
  510. Elgohary GMT361, 998
  511. Elhabashy HR1003
  512. Elhadi M1006
  513. Elmehrath AO45, 1004
  514. Elmeligy OAA114, 410
  515. Elshaer M995
  516. Elsohaby I1008, 1010
  517. Emeto TI853
  518. Esfandiari N1012
  519. Eshrati B526
  520. Eslami M1013, 1017
  521. Esmaeili SV59
  522. Estep K1
  523. Etaee F708
  524. Fabin N1018
  525. Fagbamigbe AF234, 1019
  526. Fagbule OF235, 1021
  527. Fahimi S87
  528. Falzone L262, 1025
  529. Fareed M901
  530. E Sa Farinha CS1026, 1027
  531. Faris MEM176
  532. Faris PS1028, 1031
  533. Faro A1034
  534. Fasina FO1035, 1038
  535. Fatehizadeh A607
  536. Fauk NK1040, 1041
  537. Fazylov T1042
  538. Feigin VL1, 1045, 1047
  539. Feng X206, 1048
  540. Fereshtehnejad SM148, 773
  541. Feroze AH46
  542. Ferrara P494
  543. Ferrari AJ1, 467
  544. Ferreira N1050
  545. Fetensa G1051
  546. Feyisa BR1052
  547. Filip I1054, 1055
  548. Fischer F354
  549. Fitriana I512
  550. Flavel J1056
  551. Flohr C737
  552. Flood D877, 1057
  553. Flor LS1, 3
  554. Foigt NA1058
  555. Folayan MO168, 220
  556. Force LM1, 3, 6
  557. Fortuna D1059
  558. Foschi M1060, 1063
  559. Franklin RC852
  560. Freitas A718, 1064
  561. Friedman SD732
  562. Fux B1065
  563. Gaal PA1068, 1069
  564. Gaihre S1070
  565. Gajdacs M1071
  566. Galali Y1029, 1032
  567. Gallus S1072
  568. Gandhi AP1073
  569. Ganesan B1074
  570. Ganiyani MA280, 1075
  571. Garcia V1
  572. Gardner WM1
  573. Garg RK1076
  574. Gautam RK1077
  575. Gebi TG1078
  576. Gebregergis MW541
  577. Gebrehiwot M1079
  578. Gebremariam TBB1080
  579. Gebremeskel TG639, 1082
  580. Gerema U18
  581. Getacher L1083
  582. A Getahun GK1084
  583. Getie M304
  584. Ghadirian F60
  585. Ghafarian S93
  586. Jolfayi AG61, 527
  587. Ghailan KY868, 1085
  588. Ghajar A298
  589. Ghasemi M62, 63
  590. Dabaghi GG606
  591. Ghasemzadeh A29
  592. Ghassemi F93
  593. Ghazy RM115
  594. Gholami A1086, 1087
  595. Gholamrezanezhad A129
  596. Gholizadeh N498
  597. Ghorbani M617
  598. Gil AU1089, 1090
  599. Gil GF1
  600. Gilbertson NM1, 3
  601. Gill PS1091
  602. Gill TK1092
  603. Gindaba EZ1094
  604. Girmay A1081
  605. Glasbey JC749
  606. Gnedovskaya EV1047
  607. Gobolos L918, 1095
  608. Godinho MA1096
  609. Goel A1097
  610. Golechha M1098
  611. Goleij P1099, 1100
  612. Golinelli D1106
  613. Gomes NGM716, 719
  614. Gopalani SV1107, 1108
  615. Gorini G832
  616. Goudarzi H1109, 1110
  617. Goulart AC727
  618. Gouravani M90
  619. Goyal A1111
  620. Graham SM651, 723
  621. Grivna M189, 1115
  622. Grosso G262
  623. Guan SY1116
  624. Guarducci G1117
  625. Gubari MIM1118
  626. Guha A807, 919
  627. Guicciardi S828, 1119
  628. Gulati S1120
  629. Gulisashvili D1121
  630. Gunawardane DA1123
  631. Guo C858
  632. Gupta AK1124, 1126
  633. Gupta B1127
  634. Gupta M440
  635. Gupta R1128, 1129, 1131, 1133, 1134
  636. Gupta RD1128, 1129, 1131, 1133, 1134
  637. Gupta R1128, 1129, 1131, 1133, 1134
  638. Gupta S1135
  639. Gupta VB1136, 1138
  640. Gupta VK1139
  641. Gupta VK1139
  642. Habibzadeh F1141
  643. Habibzadeh P1122
  644. Hadaro TS699
  645. Hadian Z64, 1142
  646. Haep N355, 1143
  647. Haghiaminjan H1144
  648. Haghmorad D1014, 1015
  649. Hagins H1
  650. Haile D1
  651. Hailu A782
  652. Ali AH441
  653. Halboub ES869
  654. Halimi A65
  655. Hall BJ1145
  656. Haller S1146, 1147
  657. Halwani R170, 171
  658. Hamadeh RR1148
  659. Hamdy NM999
  660. Hameed S419
  661. Hamidi S1150
  662. Hammoud A812
  663. Hanif A419
  664. Hanifi N133
  665. Haq ZA1151
  666. Haque MDR1153
  667. Harapan H1155
  668. Hargono A549
  669. Haro JM1156, 1157
  670. Hasaballah AI1158
  671. Hasan I1154
  672. Hasan MJ1160
  673. Hasan SMM1161
  674. Hasani H528
  675. Hasanian M1162
  676. Hashmeh N1
  677. Hasnain MS1, 1163
  678. Hassan A1005
  679. Hassan I1164, 1165
  680. Hassan Zadeh Tabatabaei MS94
  681. Hassani S83
  682. Hassanipour S506, 507
  683. Hassankhani H31
  684. Haubold J1167, 1168
  685. Havmoeller RJ1169
  686. Hay SI1, 3
  687. Hebert JJ1170, 1171
  688. Hegazi OE325
  689. Hegena TY558
  690. Heidari G1172
  691. Heidari M1173
  692. Helfer B1176, 1177
  693. Hemmati M1178, 1179
  694. Henson CA1
  695. Herbert ME1
  696. Herteliu C475, 1180
  697. Heuer A1
  698. Hezam K1181, 1182
  699. Hinneh TK247
  700. Hiraike Y1183
  701. Hoan NQ1186
  702. Holla R628
  703. Hon J1
  704. Hoque ME1187
  705. Horita N1188, 1189
  706. Hossain S347, 1191
  707. Hosseini SE1192
  708. Hosseinzadeh H1193
  709. Hosseinzadeh M924, 1194
  710. Hostiuc M461
  711. Hostiuc S462, 1195
  712. Hoven H595, 1196
  713. Hsairi M1197
  714. Hsu JM1
  715. Hu C1198
  716. Huang J884
  717. Huda MN208, 1200
  718. Hulland EN1, 1201
  719. Hultstrom M287, 288
  720. Hushmandi K453
  721. Hussain J1202
  722. Hussein NR1205
  723. Huynh CK1
  724. Huynh HH1206
  725. Ibitoye SE236
  726. Idowu OO231
  727. Ihler AL1
  728. Ikeda N1211
  729. Ikuta KS1, 1212
  730. Ilesanmi OS233, 1022
  731. Ilic IM1213
  732. Ilic MD1215
  733. Imam MT1216
  734. Immurana M143
  735. Inbaraj LR1218
  736. Irham LM1219
  737. Isa MA370, 1220
  738. Islam MR1132
  739. Ismail F1221, 1222
  740. Ismail NE1223, 1225
  741. Iso H1226
  742. Isola G263
  743. Iwagami M661, 1229
  744. Iwu CCD1036
  745. Iwujaja CJ1231, 1233
  746. Jaafari J508
  747. Jacob L1236, 1237
  748. Jacobsen KH1238
  749. Jadidiniaragh F32
  750. Jahankhani K66
  751. Jahanmehr N67, 68
  752. Jahrami H1149, 1239
  753. Jain A1240
  754. Jain N1241
  755. Jairoun AA1242
  756. Jaiswal A600
  757. Jakovljevic M1243, 1244
  758. Yengejeh RJ1245
  759. Jamora RDG1246, 1247
  760. Jatau AI1248
  761. Javadov S1250
  762. Javaheri T787
  763. Jayaram S1251
  764. Jeganathan J756
  765. Jeswani BM1252
  766. Jiang H580, 1253
  767. Johnson CO1
  768. Jokar M1255, 1256
  769. Jomehzadeh N1258
  770. Jonas JB1259, 1260
  771. Joo T1068, 1261
  772. Joseph A1112
  773. Joseph N759
  774. Joshi V629, 1262
  775. Joshua CE1263
  776. Jozwiak JJ1264
  777. Jurisson M1265
  778. Kaambwa B639, 640
  779. Kabir A529
  780. Kabir Z1266
  781. Kadashetti V704
  782. Kahn EM1
  783. Kalani R7
  784. Kaliyadan F1267
  785. Kalra S765, 1268
  786. Kamath R630, 1269
  787. Kanagasabai T1270
  788. Kanchan T484
  789. Kandel H565, 1271
  790. Kanmiki EW468, 1272
  791. Kanmodi KK1273, 1274
  792. Kansal SK1276
  793. Kapner DJ1
  794. Kapoor N598
  795. Karagiannidis E937
  796. Karajizadeh M449
  797. Karakasis P937
  798. Karanth SD671
  799. Karaye IM1279, 1280
  800. Karch A691
  801. Karim A177
  802. Karimi H90
  803. Karmakar S485
  804. Kashoo FZ1281
  805. Kasraei H447, 530
  806. Kassahun WD1282
  807. Kassebaum NJ1, 3, 8
  808. Kassel MB1
  809. Katikireddi SV1283
  810. Kauppila JH151, 1285
  811. Kawakami N1184
  812. Kaydi N308
  813. Kayode GA1288, 1289
  814. Kazemi F248
  815. Keiyoro PN1291
  816. Kemmer L1
  817. Kempen JH47, 1293
  818. Kerr JA1294, 1296
  819. Kesseguyot E1297, 1298
  820. Khader YS402
  821. Khafaie MA309
  822. Khajuria H1299
  823. Khalaji A693
  824. Khalil M5
  825. Khalilian A499
  826. Khamesipour F95, 1301
  827. Khan A469
  828. Khan MN123, 566, 868, 1303
  829. Khan MJ123, 1303
  830. Khan MAB123, 190, 1304
  831. Khanmohammadi S694
  832. Khatab K1305, 1306
  833. Khatatbeh H1307
  834. Khatatbeh MM343
  835. Khatib MN1308
  836. Khavandegar A94
  837. Kashani HRK69
  838. Khidri FF1309
  839. Khodadoust E531
  840. Khormali M94
  841. Khorrami Z70
  842. Khosla AA279, 1310
  843. Khosrowjerdi M1311
  844. Khreis H492, 1312
  845. Khusun H1313, 1314
  846. Kifle ZD135
  847. Kim K1315, 1316
  848. Kim MS1315, 1316
  849. Kim YJ1317
  850. Kimokoti RW1318
  851. Kisa A1319, 1320
  852. Kisa S1321
  853. Knibbs LD564
  854. Knudsen AKS1322
  855. Koh DSQ895
  856. Kolahi AA71
  857. Kompani F96
  858. Kong J1324
  859. Koren G1290
  860. Korja M1326
  861. Korshunov VA1329
  862. Korzh O1330
  863. Kosen S1331
  864. Kothari N486
  865. Koul PA1332
  866. Laxminarayana SLK1333
  867. Krishan K1277
  868. Krishnamoorthy V8, 315
  869. Krishnamoorthy Y1336
  870. Krishnan B1337
  871. Krohn KJ1
  872. Defo BK1338, 1339
  873. Bicer BK1340
  874. Kuddus MA1341, 1342
  875. Kuddus M1341, 1342
  876. Kugbey N1343
  877. Kuitunen I1344, 1345
  878. Kulimbet M1043, 1044
  879. Kulkarni V1346
  880. Kumar A1348
  881. Kumar N759
  882. Kumar V1349, 1350
  883. Kundu S1351, 1352
  884. Kurmi OP1020, 1355
  885. Kusnali A1358
  886. Kusuma D1359, 1360
  887. Kutluk T1361
  888. Vecchia CL844
  889. Ladan MA122
  890. Laflamme L152, 1362
  891. Lahariya C1363, 1364
  892. Lai DTC1365, 1366
  893. Lal DK1368
  894. Lallukka T1369
  895. Lam J1068, 1371
  896. Lan Q1372
  897. Lan T330
  898. Landires I1373, 1374
  899. Lanfranchi F1375
  900. Langguth B1376
  901. Lansingh VC1377, 1378
  902. Laplantelevesque A1379
  903. Larijani B97
  904. Larsson AO289, 1380
  905. Lasrado S1381
  906. Lauriola P1382
  907. Le HH1383, 1385
  908. Le LKD1386
  909. Le NHH1383, 1385
  910. Le TTT1384
  911. Leasher JL1387
  912. Ledda C264
  913. Lee M1388
  914. Lee PH574
  915. Lee SW1389
  916. Lee SWH1390, 1392
  917. Lee YH1393
  918. Legrand KE1
  919. Leigh J567
  920. Leong E1367
  921. Lerango TL126
  922. Lescinsky H1
  923. Leung J1395
  924. Li MC1396
  925. Li WZ709
  926. Li W709, 1397
  927. Li Y1398
  928. Li Z48, 1199
  929. Ligade VS631
  930. Lim LL390, 885
  931. Lim SS1, 3
  932. Lin RT1399, 1400
  933. Lin S1401
  934. Liu C580
  935. Liu G271
  936. Liu J1403, 1404, 1405
  937. Liu J1403, 1404, 1405
  938. Liu RT982, 1409
  939. Liu S1049
  940. Liu W1410
  941. Liu X442, 710, 920, 983
  942. Liu X442, 710, 920, 983
  943. Livingstone KM1411
  944. Llanaj E1413, 1414
  945. Lohiya A1415
  946. Lopezbueno R1416, 1417
  947. Lopukhov PD1329
  948. Lorkowski S1418, 1419
  949. Lotufo PA728
  950. Lozano R1, 3, 955
  951. Lubinda J978
  952. Lucchetti G1420
  953. Luo L1421
  954. Lv H1425
  955. Amin HIM1030, 1033
  956. Ma ZF1426
  957. Maass KL1
  958. Mabrok M1427, 1428
  959. Machairas N1429
  960. Machoy M1432
  961. Mafhoumi A98
  962. El Razek MMA1434
  963. Maghazachi AA170
  964. Prasad DRM1435, 1436
  965. Maharaj SB1437, 1439
  966. Mahmoud MA1440
  967. Mahmoudi E99
  968. Majeed A680
  969. Makram OM594, 1441
  970. Makris KC1442
  971. Malasala S1130
  972. Maled V1443, 1444
  973. Malhotra K748, 1446
  974. Malik AA411, 419
  975. Malik I1217
  976. Malinga LA1037, 1447
  977. Malta DC159
  978. Mamun AA468
  979. Manda AL460, 1448
  980. Manla Y1451
  981. Mansour A1452
  982. Mansouri B1101
  983. Mansouri P99
  984. Mansourian M608
  985. Mansournia MA89
  986. Mantovani LG495, 1453
  987. Manu E144
  988. Marateb HR1454, 1455
  989. Maravilla JC468
  990. Marsh E1
  991. Martinez G1456, 1457
  992. Martinezpiedra R1457
  993. Martini S551, 1458
  994. Martinsmelo FR1459
  995. Martorell M1460, 1461
  996. Marx W1137
  997. Maryam S1462
  998. Mathangasinghe Y647, 1463
  999. Mathioudakis AG1465, 1466
  1000. Matozinhos FP159
  1001. Mattumpuram J1467
  1002. Maugeri A261
  1003. Maulik PK209, 1468
  1004. Mayeli M90
  1005. Mazidi M738
  1006. Mazzotti A828, 1469
  1007. Mcgrath JJ470, 1470
  1008. Mckee M662
  1009. Mckowen ALW1
  1010. Mclaughlin SA1
  1011. Mcphail MA979
  1012. Mcphail SM1347, 1472
  1013. Mechili EA1473, 1474
  1014. Mehmood A870
  1015. Mehmood K624
  1016. Mehrabanizeinabad K609
  1017. Nasab EM100
  1018. Meier T1476, 1477
  1019. Mejiarodriguez F577
  1020. Meto TM700
  1021. Mekonnen BD1478
  1022. Menezes RG338
  1023. Mengist B1481
  1024. Mensah GA790, 1190
  1025. Mensah LG1484
  1026. Mentis AFA1485
  1027. Meo SA362
  1028. Meretoja A1254, 1327
  1029. Meretoja TJ1328, 1370
  1030. Mersha AM701
  1031. Mesfin BA702
  1032. Mestrovic T1, 1486
  1033. Mettananda KCD1487, 1489
  1034. Mettananda S1488, 1490
  1035. Miazgowski T1433
  1036. Micha G1491
  1037. Michalek IM1492, 1493
  1038. De Sa ACMGN159
  1039. Miller TR1494, 1495
  1040. Mirarefin M1497
  1041. Mirghafourvand M33
  1042. Mirica A475
  1043. Mirijello A1498
  1044. Mirrakhimov EM1499, 1500
  1045. Mirshahi A101, 1501
  1046. Mirzaei M1102
  1047. Mishra AK1507
  1048. Mishra V1508, 1509
  1049. Mitchell PB210
  1050. Mithra P759
  1051. Mittal C1510
  1052. Moazen B324, 1511
  1053. Moberg ME1
  1054. Mocciaro G1512
  1055. Mohamadkhani A87
  1056. Mohamed AZ1513
  1057. Mohamed AI20, 1514
  1058. Mohamed J1515
  1059. Mohamed MFH1152
  1060. Mohamed NS1516, 1517
  1061. Mohammadi E102
  1062. Mohammadi S1203
  1063. Mohammadianhafshejani A1174
  1064. Mohammadifard N610
  1065. Mohammed H1518
  1066. Mohammed M395
  1067. Mohammed S473, 1519, 1520, 1521
  1068. Mohammed S473, 1519, 1520, 1521
  1069. Mokdad AH1, 3
  1070. Monasta L1524
  1071. Mondello S1525
  1072. Moni MA469
  1073. Ghalibaf AM1526
  1074. Moore CE1528
  1075. Moradi M535
  1076. Moradi Y1529
  1077. Moraga P1530
  1078. Morawska L1531
  1079. Moreira RS1533, 1534
  1080. Morovatdar N618
  1081. Morrison SD9
  1082. Morze J1535, 1536
  1083. Heris RM34, 35
  1084. Mossialos E683, 1537
  1085. Motappa R759
  1086. Mougin V1
  1087. Mousavi P82
  1088. Msherghi A1007
  1089. Mubarik S1538
  1090. Muccioli L828
  1091. Mueller UO1541, 1542
  1092. Mulita F1543, 1544
  1093. Mullany EC1
  1094. Munjal K1300
  1095. Murillozamora E1547, 1548
  1096. Murlimanju BV760
  1097. Musina AM1549, 1551
  1098. Mustafa G273, 1553
  1099. Muthu S1554, 1555
  1100. Muthupandian S901, 1556
  1101. Muthusamy R1557
  1102. Muzaffar M420, 421
  1103. Myung W1560, 1562
  1104. Nafei A1563
  1105. Nagarajan AJ1564, 1565
  1106. Nagaraju SP632
  1107. Nagel G1566
  1108. Naghavi M1, 3
  1109. Naghavi P672
  1110. Naik GR639, 888
  1111. Naik G1502
  1112. Nainu F1567
  1113. Nair TS1568
  1114. Najdaghi S611, 612
  1115. Ansari NN103, 104
  1116. Nanavaty DP1569
  1117. Nangia V1570
  1118. Swamy SN1571
  1119. Davani DN611
  1120. Nascimento BR160, 161
  1121. Nascimento GG882
  1122. Nashwan AJ185
  1123. Natto ZS49, 412
  1124. Nauman J189, 596
  1125. Navaratna SNK1123, 1464
  1126. Naveed M1572
  1127. Nayak BP1299
  1128. Nayak VC627
  1129. Ndejjo R1573
  1130. Nduaguba SO1574
  1131. Negash H542
  1132. Negoi I460, 1449
  1133. Negoi RI463, 1575
  1134. Nejadghaderi SA72, 694
  1135. Nejjari C1576, 1577
  1136. Nematollahi MH1302
  1137. Nepal S1578
  1138. Neupane S1579
  1139. Ng M896
  1140. Nguefacktsague G1580
  1141. Ngunjiri JW1581
  1142. Nguyen DH984, 1582
  1143. Nguyen NNY959, 1583
  1144. Nguyen PT1584, 1585, 1586
  1145. Nguyen PT1584, 1585, 1586
  1146. Nguyen VT1384
  1147. Minh DNT1587
  1148. Niazi RK1588
  1149. Nicholson SI1
  1150. Nie J1402
  1151. Nikoobar A71
  1152. Nikpoor AR268
  1153. Ningrum DNA1207, 1589
  1154. Nnaji CA791
  1155. Noman EA568, 1590
  1156. Nomura S1185, 1591
  1157. Noroozi N105
  1158. Norrving B1592
  1159. Noubiap JJ1093
  1160. Nriezedi CA1593
  1161. Ntaios G1545
  1162. Ntsekhe M792, 1594
  1163. Nunemo MH558
  1164. Nurrika D1595, 1596
  1165. Nutor JJ1597
  1166. Oancea B1600
  1167. Oconnell EM1
  1168. Odetokun IA545
  1169. Odonnell MJ1601
  1170. Oduro MS1602
  1171. Ogunfowokan AA1603
  1172. Ogunkoya A236
  1173. Oh IH1604
  1174. Okatialiabad H1606
  1175. Okeke SR202
  1176. Okekunle AP237, 1561
  1177. Okonji OC1608
  1178. Olagunju AT1356, 1609
  1179. Olasupo OO1357
  1180. Olatubi MI1610
  1181. Oliveira AB729, 1611
  1182. Oliveira GMM1612
  1183. Olorukooba AA1522
  1184. Olufadewa II238, 1613
  1185. Olusanya BO1614
  1186. Olusanya JO1614
  1187. Oluwafemi YD229
  1188. Omar HA172, 1615
  1189. Bali AO925
  1190. Omer GL1616, 1617
  1191. Ong KL1
  1192. Ong S1618, 1619
  1193. Onwujekwe OE515
  1194. Onyedibe KI1620
  1195. Oppong AF1621
  1196. Ordak M1622
  1197. Orish VN146, 1624
  1198. Ornello R1061, 1625
  1199. Orpana HM1626, 1627
  1200. Ortiz A584, 1628
  1201. Ortizprado E1629
  1202. Osman WMS223
  1203. Ostroff SM1, 10
  1204. Osuagwu UL889, 1630
  1205. Otoiu A475
  1206. Otstavnov N1631
  1207. Otstavnov SS1631, 1632
  1208. Ouyahia A800, 1634
  1209. Owolabi MO239, 1023
  1210. Oyeyemi IT227
  1211. Oyeyemi OT227
  1212. Padukudru MPA1635
  1213. Pachecobarrios K50, 1637
  1214. Padronmonedero A839
  1215. Padubidri JR970
  1216. Pal PK1638
  1217. Palicz T1068, 1261
  1218. Pan F1249
  1219. Pan HF1116
  1220. Pana A1639, 1640
  1221. Panda SK1641, 1643
  1222. Pandajonas S1645
  1223. Pandey A949, 1646
  1224. Pandiperumal SR1558, 1647
  1225. Pangaribuan HU1358
  1226. Pantazopoulos I905, 1546
  1227. Stoian AMP464
  1228. Papadopoulou P1430, 1648
  1229. Parent MC1, 3
  1230. Parija PP1649
  1231. Parikh RR1650
  1232. Park S1113, 1394
  1233. Park S1113, 1394
  1234. Parsons N380
  1235. Pashaei A15
  1236. Pasovic M1
  1237. Passera R1652, 1653
  1238. Patil S1559, 1654
  1239. Patoulias D937, 1655
  1240. Patthipati VS1656, 1657
  1241. Paudel U751, 949
  1242. Pawar S711
  1243. Toroudi HP532, 533
  1244. Peden AE204, 852
  1245. Pedersini P1658
  1246. Peng M1659, 1660
  1247. Pensato U1662
  1248. Pepito VCF519
  1249. Peprah EK732
  1250. Peprah P211
  1251. Peres MFP726, 1664
  1252. Perianayagam A396
  1253. Perico N1665
  1254. Perna S327
  1255. Pesudovs K212
  1256. Petcu IR475
  1257. Petermannrocha FE1284, 1666
  1258. Pham HT960
  1259. Philip AK1204
  1260. Phillips MR879, 1667
  1261. Pickering BV1
  1262. Pierannunzio D1668
  1263. Pigeolet M41, 1669
  1264. Pigott DM1, 3
  1265. Piracha ZZ1670
  1266. Piradov MA1047
  1267. Pisoni E1671
  1268. Piyasena MP1672, 1673
  1269. Plass D1674
  1270. Plotnikov E1675, 1676
  1271. Poddighe D796, 1677
  1272. Polkinghorne KR381
  1273. Poluru R1678
  1274. Pond CD1679
  1275. Popovic DS1680, 1681
  1276. Porru F1682
  1277. Postma MJ242, 1539
  1278. Poudel GR856
  1279. Pourrashidi A106
  1280. Pourshams A87
  1281. Pourtaheri N1683
  1282. Prabhu D1684
  1283. Prada SI1685
  1284. Pradhan J1686
  1285. Pradhan PMS39, 752
  1286. Prasad M1687
  1287. Prates EJS159
  1288. Purnobasuki H552
  1289. Purohit BM601
  1290. Puvvula J1688
  1291. Qasim NH1689
  1292. Qattea I921
  1293. Qazi AS368
  1294. Qian G1690
  1295. Qiu S1325
  1296. Rad MR606, 1691
  1297. Radfar A1692
  1298. Radhakrishnan RA633
  1299. Radhakrishnan V1693
  1300. Shahraki HR450
  1301. Rafferty Q1
  1302. Rafiei A500, 501
  1303. Raggi A1694
  1304. Raghav PR482
  1305. Raheem N1695
  1306. Rahim F1696, 1697
  1307. Rahim MJ1503, 1504
  1308. Rahimifard M107
  1309. Rahimimovaghar V94
  1310. Rahman MO579, 1698, 1699, 1700
  1311. Rahman MA579, 1698, 1699, 1700
  1312. Rahmani AM1701
  1313. Rahmani B1702
  1314. Rahmanian M73
  1315. Rahmanian N509, 1703
  1316. Rahmanian V1704
  1317. Rahmati M1705
  1318. Rahmawaty S1706
  1319. Raimondo D1707
  1320. Rajaa S1709
  1321. Rajendran V1067
  1322. Rajput P1710
  1323. Ramadan MM178, 996
  1324. Ramasamy SK1114
  1325. Ramasubramani P1711
  1326. Ramazanu S897
  1327. Ramteke PW1712, 1713
  1328. Rana J260, 1714
  1329. Rana K887
  1330. Ranabhat CL1715, 1716
  1331. Rane A1717, 1718
  1332. Rani U1334
  1333. Ranta A1719, 1720
  1334. Rao CR634
  1335. Rao M628
  1336. Rao PC1
  1337. Rao SJ1721
  1338. Rasella D973
  1339. Rashedi S99, 694
  1340. Rashedi V1722
  1341. Rashidi M71, 82, 1723
  1342. Rashidi MM71, 82, 1723
  1343. Rasoulisaravani A66
  1344. Ratan ZA1193, 1724
  1345. Babu GR397
  1346. Rauniyar SK1185
  1347. Rautalin I1046, 1326
  1348. Rawaf DL684, 1725
  1349. Rawaf S680, 1726
  1350. Rawassizadeh R788
  1351. Razo C1
  1352. Reda ZFF1727
  1353. Reddy MMRK757
  1354. Redwan EMM1728, 1729
  1355. Reifels L1253
  1356. Reitsma MB1
  1357. Remuzzi G1665
  1358. Reshmi B635
  1359. Resnikoff S212, 1730
  1360. Restaino S1731
  1361. Reyes LF1732, 1733
  1362. Rezaei M1527
  1363. Rezaei N82, 97
  1364. Rezaei N82, 97
  1365. Rezaeian M81
  1366. Rhee TG709, 1734
  1367. Riaz MA423
  1368. Ribeiro ALP157, 162
  1369. Rickard J1651, 1735
  1370. Robinsonoden HE1
  1371. Rodrigues CF720, 1736
  1372. Rodrigues M677
  1373. Rodriguez JAB652, 1737
  1374. Roever L1738, 1739
  1375. Romadlon DS1740
  1376. Ronfani L1524
  1377. Rosauer JJ1
  1378. Roshandel G1741
  1379. Rostamian M1742
  1380. Rotimi K1743, 1744
  1381. Rout HS1642
  1382. Roy B1745
  1383. Roy N1353
  1384. Rubagotti E1746
  1385. De Andrade Ruela G1747, 1748
  1386. Rumisha SF979, 1749
  1387. Runghien T1, 653
  1388. Russo M1750
  1389. Ruzzante SW1751
  1390. Chandan SN1636
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Source: The Lancet Published:2024


Abstract

Background: Understanding the health consequences associated with exposure to risk factors is necessary to inform public health policy and practice. To systematically quantify the contributions of risk factor exposures to specific health outcomes, the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 aims to provide comprehensive estimates of exposure levels, relative health risks, and attributable burden of disease for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, from 1990 to 2021. Methods: The GBD 2021 risk factor analysis used data from 54 561 total distinct sources to produce epidemiological estimates for 88 risk factors and their associated health outcomes for a total of 631 risk–outcome pairs. Pairs were included on the basis of data-driven determination of a risk–outcome association. Age-sex-location-year-specific estimates were generated at global, regional, and national levels. Our approach followed the comparative risk assessment framework predicated on a causal web of hierarchically organised, potentially combinative, modifiable risks. Relative risks (RRs) of a given outcome occurring as a function of risk factor exposure were estimated separately for each risk–outcome pair, and summary exposure values (SEVs), representing risk-weighted exposure prevalence, and theoretical minimum risk exposure levels (TMRELs) were estimated for each risk factor. These estimates were used to calculate the population attributable fraction (PAF; ie, the proportional change in health risk that would occur if exposure to a risk factor were reduced to the TMREL). The product of PAFs and disease burden associated with a given outcome, measured in disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), yielded measures of attributable burden (ie, the proportion of total disease burden attributable to a particular risk factor or combination of risk factors). Adjustments for mediation were applied to account for relationships involving risk factors that act indirectly on outcomes via intermediate risks. Attributable burden estimates were stratified by Socio-demographic Index (SDI) quintile and presented as counts, age-standardised rates, and rankings. To complement estimates of RR and attributable burden, newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF) methods were applied to yield supplementary, conservative interpretations of risk–outcome associations based on the consistency of underlying evidence, accounting for unexplained heterogeneity between input data from different studies. Estimates reported represent the mean value across 500 draws from the estimate's distribution, with 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs) calculated as the 2·5th and 97·5th percentile values across the draws. Findings: Among the specific risk factors analysed for this study, particulate matter air pollution was the leading contributor to the global disease burden in 2021, contributing 8·0% (95% UI 6·7–9·4) of total DALYs, followed by high systolic blood pressure (SBP; 7·8% [6·4–9·2]), smoking (5·7% [4·7–6·8]), low birthweight and short gestation (5·6% [4·8–6·3]), and high fasting plasma glucose (FPG; 5·4% [4·8–6·0]). For younger demographics (ie, those aged 0–4 years and 5–14 years), risks such as low birthweight and short gestation and unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing (WaSH) were among the leading risk factors, while for older age groups, metabolic risks such as high SBP, high body-mass index (BMI), high FPG, and high LDL cholesterol had a greater impact. From 2000 to 2021, there was an observable shift in global health challenges, marked by a decline in the number of all-age DALYs broadly attributable to behavioural risks (decrease of 20·7% [13·9–27·7]) and environmental and occupational risks (decrease of 22·0% [15·5–28·8]), coupled with a 49·4% (42·3–56·9) increase in DALYs attributable to metabolic risks, all reflecting ageing populations and changing lifestyles on a global scale. Age-standardised global DALY rates attributable to high BMI and high FPG rose considerably (15·7% [9·9–21·7] for high BMI and 7·9% [3·3–12·9] for high FPG) over this period, with exposure to these risks increasing annually at rates of 1·8% (1·6–1·9) for high BMI and 1·3% (1·1–1·5) for high FPG. By contrast, the global risk-attributable burden and exposure to many other risk factors declined, notably for risks such as child growth failure and unsafe water source, with age-standardised attributable DALYs decreasing by 71·5% (64·4–78·8) for child growth failure and 66·3% (60·2–72·0) for unsafe water source. We separated risk factors into three groups according to trajectory over time: those with a decreasing attributable burden, due largely to declining risk exposure (eg, diet high in trans-fat and household air pollution) but also to proportionally smaller child and youth populations (eg, child and maternal malnutrition); those for which the burden increased moderately in spite of declining risk exposure, due largely to population ageing (eg, smoking); and those for which the burden increased considerably due to both increasing risk exposure and population ageing (eg, ambient particulate matter air pollution, high BMI, high FPG, and high SBP). Interpretation: Substantial progress has been made in reducing the global disease burden attributable to a range of risk factors, particularly those related to maternal and child health, WaSH, and household air pollution. Maintaining efforts to minimise the impact of these risk factors, especially in low SDI locations, is necessary to sustain progress. Successes in moderating the smoking-related burden by reducing risk exposure highlight the need to advance policies that reduce exposure to other leading risk factors such as ambient particulate matter air pollution and high SBP. Troubling increases in high FPG, high BMI, and other risk factors related to obesity and metabolic syndrome indicate an urgent need to identify and implement interventions. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 license
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